[Fechado] Layouts and styling broken after WPML translation

Background of the issue:
I'm trying to translate my original Dutch page (link oculto) to French (link oculto) using WPML.

Symptoms:
Layouts and styling are broken after WPML translation. The stars for the reviews are suddenly black and vertically aligned. The cards 'Transparence et communication', 'Orienté vers les résultats', etc., are losing their content. Many elements on the homepage are also broken.

Questions:
What am I doing wrong with the translation process?
Why are the stars for the reviews black and vertically aligned?
Why are the cards losing their content after translation?
Why are many elements on the homepage broken after translation?