[Cerrado] Issue with Translated Strings Not Displaying on Frontend

Background of the issue:
I’m writing to report an issue we’ve recently encountered on our website. Some strings that were previously translated and correctly displayed on the frontend are now showing only in the original language. The translations themselves are still present and correct within WPML, and the strings are registered in the code using the following format: __('Original string', 'text-domain'). Link to a page where the issue can be seen: enlace oculto

Symptoms:
Translated strings are not displaying on the frontend and are showing in the original language instead.

Questions:
Why are the translations no longer appearing correctly on the frontend?
How can we resolve the issue of translated strings not displaying?