[Geschlossen] Some strings are translated/untranslated

Background of the issue:
I’m trying to fix an issue where string translations randomly appear untranslated on the front-end, even though all strings are translated correctly in WPML → String Translation. The problem occurs mainly in WooCommerce mini-cart (woocommerce/cart/mini-cart.php) and WooCommerce checkout fees section. I use two text domains inside my custom theme. I run a full string scan after every production release. We use WP Rocket for caching. The domain is proxied through Cloudflare. wp-content/languages/wpml/ is gitignored, so cached MO files are not deployed.

Symptoms:
Sometimes translated strings appear correctly, and sometimes they revert to English or stay untranslated. This happens without me changing anything. The issue mostly appears after deploying new code to production. WPML backend always shows the string translated, but the front-end shows outdated or untranslated strings until something unknown refreshes them.

Questions:
How can I ensure that string translations remain consistent on the front-end after deploying new code?
What steps can I take to prevent the mini-cart from caching outdated translations?