I spent over 10 hours investigating this problem and found that it is related to Elementor from version 3.19.4 onwards. This version introduced the beta Flexbox Container, which is enabled by default. After installing WPML's String Translator, I encountered some issues with Elementor, so I tried toggling a few beta features on and off.
Here's what I've found to be the correct configuration for these beta features in the latest versions of Elementor/Elementor Pro.
I'm not sure if WPML's String Translator is working correctly, and I don't have the time to explore its settings or troubleshoot further. However, I did notice the following message in Query Monitor: "rtrim(): Passing null to parameter #1 ($string) of type string is deprecated" in the "sitepress-multilingual-cms" plugin on PHP 8.1. (I've encountered even more issues with PHP 8.2, so I'm sticking with PHP 8.1 for now.)
If you can confirm that this issue is acceptable or provide any guidance, I'll continue learning about WPML and proceed with translating my site. Thanks in advance for your assistance.